2022cs作业代写价格A Comparative Study of ＂Death＂ Euphemism between Chinese and
AComparativeStudyof"Death"EuphemismbetweenChineseandEnglish1IntroductionDeathisthemostterribleeventtomosthumanbeings,whichmeanstheendofexistence.Asaconsequence,itisaforbiddenareainalmosteveryculture.However,peoplemustfaceitnomatterwhethertheylikeitornot.Toavoidmentioningdirectlytheword"death",whichprobablywillarouseunhappyfeelingandfrightenpeople,lotsofeuphemismsarecreatedtosubstituteforit.Thisthesisuses"deatheuphemism"tostandforthiscategoryofeuphemismforconvenience.JohnGross(Enright,1985:203)concluded,"Death,wearefrequentlytold,hasreplacedsexasthegreatforbiddensubject."Somedeatheuphemismsexpresscommendatorymeaning,suchastobeinheaven,tobewithGod;someneutral,suchastogo,todecease;stillsomederogatory,suchastocrock,tokickthebucket.Peoplearereluctanttoacceptthefactthatthedeadpersonshaveleftthisworldforever,andtheyemployvariousstrategiestoachievetheirgoal.Deathisjustlikearestorsomeotherformsofnon-consciousness,sothedeadjustclosetheireyesandfallasleep;deathisajourneyoraleavingfromlifetosomespecifiedorunspecifiedplaces,sothedeadpassawayandgotoabetterplaceorevenareinthearmsofJesus;deathisanimperativeinvitationfromtheauthoritiesintheafterlife,sothedeadreceivethefinalsummonsandhavetoanswerthecall;deathisalossforthosewhoknowthedead,sothedeadarenolongerwithusandaresadlymissed;deathisalsoanend,sothedeadbreathetheirlastandarenomore.Chinesedeatheuphemismsaremorecomplicatedduetothedeepculturalconnotations,forinstance,deatheuphemismscanindicatenotonlypeople'sattitudetowardsthedead,butalsotheidentitiesofthedead.Euphemism,foralongtime,hasbeendiscussedbyscholarsasFromkin(1988),Rawson(1981),Leech(1985)，张拱贵(1996)etc.intheirrespectivefieldsofresearch.Theirstudyhasbeenmainlyrestrictedinthreeareas:dictionarycompiling,rhetoric,andsemantics,amongwhich,dictionarycompilingaccountsforthelargestproportion.ThemajorconcernofscholarsasRawson(1981)，Neaman&Silver(1983),Ayto(1993)，刘纯豹(1990)and张拱贵(1996)istocollectandcategorizeeuphemismsfordictionariesorthesauruses.Thislexicographicalapproachmainlydealswiththemeaning,etymologyofeacheuphemismanditsrelationtootherterms,payinglittleattentiontothesocio-culturalaspectofeuphemisms.Therhetoricviewtreatseuphemismonlyasafigureofspeech,revealingindetailtheformation,classificationofeuphemisms.Whilethesemanticviewregardseuphemizingasan"associativeengineering",thatis,replacingawordhavingoffensiveconnotationwithanotherexpression,whichmakesnoovertreferencetotheunpleasantsideofthesubject,andmayevenbea"positivemisnomer"(Leech,1985:45).Thisapproachexplorestheoriginandformationofeuphemismsintermsoftheirsemanticfeatures.Mostofthestudiesondeatheuphemismsalsoconcentrateontheabove-mentionedwaysofanalysis.However,thoselinguistsconcernedwiththedetailsoflanguagestructurepaylittleornoattentiontothecontextinwhichspeechisembeddedortothesocio-culturalfactors,whichconditionitsuse.Therearesomescholarsas吴慧坚(1994),李思国(1999),tomentionjustafew,whoallrelatethestudyofdeatheuphemismtoitsculturalcontext.However,therestilllackssystematicandcontrastiveanalysiswiththeoreticalsupport.Psychological,religious,orconventionalfactorstriggertheincreaseofdeatheuphemismsinnumberandfrequency,butresearchesondeatheuphemismincross-culturalcommunicationarenotsystematiccomparedwithitswideapplication.Theauthor'spointinthisbriefreviewofeuphemism,especiallydeatheuphemism,isthatsincedeatheuphemismisasocio-culturallanguagephenomenon,thestudyofdeatheuphemismshouldconsideritsculturalcontext.2DefinitionEuphemismisacommonandlong-standinglinguisticandculturalphenomenoninbothwesterncommunitiesandChina.TheEnglishword"euphemism"comesfromtheGreekeu,meaning"well"or"soundinggood",andpheme,meaning"speech"or"saying"thatis,speakingwithgoodwordsorinapleasantmanner.AccordingtoAllanandBurridge(1991:11)，thedefinitionofeuphemismis:Aeuphemismisusedasanalternativetoadispreferredexpression,inordertoavoidpossiblelossofface:eitherone'sownfaceor,throughgivingoffence,thatoftheaudience,orofsomethirdparty.EnglisheuphemismcandatebacktotheNormanConquestin1066.ConsideringAnglo-Saxonwordsvulgarandobscene,NormansandthenativeupperEnglishcirclesborrowed"elegant"Latinwordstosubstitutethem.GraduallytheseLatinwordsbecameabsorbedbyEnglish,andwereregardedastheearliestEnglisheuphemisms.Around1750atrendoffastidiousnessinlanguagebecameincreasinglycommonwhichacceleratedaroundtheturnofthatcentury.Asaresult,ahugeamountofeuphemismsforsex,death,reproduction,andotherphysicalfunctionswerepopularizedpriortothestartofVictoria'sreignin1837.SincetheneuphemismshavebeenamustinEnglish-speakingnations.TheChineseequivalentfor"euphemism"is"委婉"or"婉辞",orthemostpopularone"婉曲"comprisingof"婉言"and"曲语",bothofwhichmeannottoutterdirectlytheunpleasantorrudethingsbuttohavethemexpressedinindirectways.Deatheuphemismisnotonlyalinguisticphenomenon,butalsoaculturalphenomenon,whichcanreflectthesocialstructure,traditionalvalue,religion,andsocialcustomsofthenation.Thustheinvestigationofdeatheuphemismisindispensablewiththeinvestigationoftheculturalinformationbehindthislanguagephenomenon.#p#分页标题#e#Theterm"Englishdeatheuphemism"inthisthesismustbeclarified.Theterm"nativeEnglishspeakers"includespeopleofmanycountries—Americans,Englishmen,Australians,Canadians,NewZealandersandothers.Eachofthesebelongstoaculturethatissomewhatdifferentfromtheothers,inspiteofthefactthattheyallspeakEnglish.Actually,eventhelanguagetheyspeakdiffersfromcountrytocountry.Forexample,"elevator"inAmericaiscalled"lift"inGreatBritain.SincethisthesiscannotpossiblycoveralloftheEnglish-speakingpeoples,theanalysisregardingcultureconductedinthisthesiswillfocusonAmericanoneexceptthosethatareclearlyindicated.Thisispartlybecauseofthepolitical,economicandculturalpositionofAmericaintheEnglish-speakingworld.3DifferencesAsoneformoflanguage,thegrowthofdeatheuphemismisgreatlyinfluencedbyculturesincelanguageandculturearecloselyinterrelatedtoeachother.Goodenough(1957:167)articulatedthat"Asociety'scultureconsistsofwhateveritisonehastoknoworbelieveinordertooperateinamanneracceptabletoitsmembers,andtodosoinanyrolethattheyacceptforanyoneofthemselves".Therefore,cultureisthe"know-how"thatapersonmustprocesstogetthroughthetaskofdailyliving.Sinceinalmosteveryculture,peoplevaluecertainthingsanddislikesomeothers,whichwouldundoubtedlybereflectedintheirlanguage.Culturecertainlydetermineshowalanguagespecificbitsandpiecesarethewaytheyare.Inthisway,languageisusedandisthevehicleofcultureandhenceamanifestationofthisnation'smentality,nationalpeculiarities,andacceptedwaysofbehaviors.Thustheirculturalvaluesmayinfluencetheirexpressionofpoliteness,euphemisticwaysofspeakingandwaysofavoidingtaboos.That'swhytherearedeatheuphemismsinalmosteveryculture,buteachhasdifferentculturalconnotations.Ontheotherhand,deatheuphemismchangesalongwiththedevelopmentofsociety,andtheuseofdeatheuphemismsvariesaccordingtothevariationofthecontext.Itisareflectionofcultureandcarriesvestigialpatternsoncedominantinasociety.Whethertheyareacceptablevariesfromonehistoricalperiodtoanotherwithinthissingleculture.Eveninthesamehistoricalperiod,withinthesameculture,usingofdeatheuphemismsisalsovariableanddifferentbecauseofdifferentsocialfactors,differentculturalcontext.Hartwell(1982:317)said,"Euphemisms,infact,tellusagooddealaboutthevaluesofaculture."Deatheuphemism,ofcourse,isnoexception.3.1DifferencesofCulturalPatternsIncomparingculturalpatterns,thisthesisfocusesonhumannature,relationshipofmantonatureandsenseoftime.Thefollowingpartswillexaminethemonebyone.3.1.1HumanNatureOrientationNearlyalljudgmentsabouthumanbehaviors,betheymoralorlegal,beginwiththiscorequestion:Whatisthecharacterofhumannature?Discussionsofhumannatureusuallydealwithgoodnessandrationality.Thequestionaboutgoodnessandevilnessofhumannaturehasbeenraisedsincemanhasaclearsenseofself.Becauseanswerstothisquestionvary,itisbettertoplaceculturesonacontinuumthathasthreelogicaldivisions:basicallygoodatoneendofthescale,mixtureofgoodandevilinthemiddle,andbasicallyevilattheotherendofthecontinuum.ChinahasbeenundertheinfluenceofConfuciusforthousandsofyears,andpeoplearetaughtbyitsdoctrinetobelievethatmanisbasicallygoodas《三字经》noted,"Manisbornwithgoodnature,人之初，性本善".Sincepeopleareconstantlyunderthreatofbeingcorrupted,itistheresponsibilityofthoseinauthoritytoprotectpeoplefromevilnessanderectmodelsofvirtueforthem.Ifparents,teachers,andpoliticalleaderscandothis,childrenwillfollowsuit.TheWesternbeliefabouthumannatureisthatmanisbasicallyevil.TheBiblestoryofAdamandEvecanbestdemonstratethat.GoddrovethemoutoftheGardenofEdenbecausetheyatethefruitfromthetreeofknowledge.Eversincethen,manisbornwithoriginalsin.EvilisapartofhumannatureandcanbeerasedonlybyGod.Peopleare"perfectible",thatis,byfollowingcertainrules,peoplecanimprovetheircharactersandevenbe"saved".IftheybelieveinJesusandaccepthimasthesupremeGod,theywillgetguidancefromGod"theFather",andthen,attheDayofJudgment,whentheyhandintheiraccounts,theycanstillgotoheaven,andjointheheavenlyChoirintheirafterlife.However,ifonedisobeystheguidanceofGodandlettheevilpartofhischaractergrowfreely,hewillcertainlygotothehellandsuffer.3.1.2RelationshipBetweenManandNatureThedifferencesintheconceptionoftherelationshipbetweenmanandnatureproducethreekindsofcultures.Atoneendofthescale,thereistheviewthatmanissubjecttonature.Themiddle,orso-calledcooperationviewisthatmanandnatureareinharmony.Attheotherendofthescale,thereistheviewthatcompelsmantoconqueranddirecttheforcesofnaturetoman'sadvantage.Chinesepeopletakethecorporationview,thatis,manlivesinharmonywithnature.ThisisinseparablewiththeoriginofChineseculture.Chinesecivilizationhasbeenbuiltonagriculture.TheHannationlivedinland,anddependedonagricultureastheonlywayofliving,sotheywerehighlydependentonnature.Thisphilosophyholdsthata"power"linksallthingsandcreaturestogether.Manisjustapartofnature.ThisviewisclearlyreflectedinChineseGardening.Pavilions,pavedalleysandotherartificialstructuresareintegratedwiththenaturalscene,soitishardtoseparateonefromtheother.Man'sliferhythmalsofollowsthatofnature.Everythinginnatureexperiencesspring,summer,autumnandwinter.Manfollowssuit.Mangoesthroughbirth,childhood,youth,adult,seniormanandfinallydeath.Thedeathofmanisnomorethanthewitheringofplantsorhibernationofanimals,sotherearedeatheuphemismsas"diaoling凋零,lingluo零落,lingxie零谢,weijue萎绝".#p#分页标题#e#Westernculture,especiallythatoftheGreatBritainandtheUnitedSates,derivedfromtheocean.Theirancestorslivedonthesea.Facingthemysterious,powerful,andsometimesthreateningocean,theyfeltiftheywerefrightenedbythepowerofnature,theywouldbewipedout.Therefore,theyhadfoughtagainsttheseamightbravelyearnalivingbyandsucceeded,sothisinreturn,reinforcedtheirbeliefonman'scontrolovernature.AlsotheWesternexperienceofman'sdominanceovernaturecanbetracedbacktotheBiblestoryofcreation.WhenGodcreatesAdam,heisgivenpowertomasterallofGod'screation.Adamandhishumandescendentsstandapartfromandabovenature.Theyaretoldtousethenaturalresourcestomeethumanneeds.Asmasterofnature,manisencouragedtocontrolitandexploreitinwhateverwaymanlikes.ItisGod'sintentionformantomaketheearththeirprivatedomain.ThecleardistinctionbetweenmanandnaturemakesEnglishlackthekindofdeatheuphemismsthatusenaturalphenomenatoindicateman'sending.3.1.3SenseofTimeDifferentculturehasdifferentemphasisonpast,presentandfuture,whichresultsinthreekindsoftimeorientations.Theyarerespectively,past-oriented,present-orientedandfuture-orientedtypes.Chinaisapast-orientednation.Chinesebelievestronglyinthesignificanceofprioreventsandtraditionplaysakeyrole.Chinesearetaughtfromchildhoodtheirancestors'gloriouspast.Theyknowtheirhistoryclearlyandmaytalkaboutaneventofahundredorathousandyearsagoasifithappenedyesterday.Theycandothisbecausethepastiskeptaliveinhistorybooks,storytelling,music,religiouspracticesandcustoms.TheChineseproverb"gainnewinsightsthroughreviewingoldmaterial,温故而知新"clearlystatestheimportanceofthepast.History,establishedreligionsandtraditionhavedominantinfluencesopeoplebelievethatthepastshouldbetheguideformakingdecisionsanddeterminingtruth.InChina,culturalmemoriesarerichanddeep,andpeopleliketoquoterespectedphilosophersandleadersfromthepast.That'swhysomanydeatheuphemismsderivedfromancienttimesarestillinuse.Inpast-orientedsocieties,peoplearelikelytoexperiencetimeascyclical,asrepeatingitselfaccordingtocertainpattern.ChinesecultureisstronglyinfluencedbyBuddhismdoctrines.AccordingtoBuddhism,thehistoryiscyclical;everythingaliveinthisworldgoesthroughalifecirclefromheaventoearthtohell.Nothingcanescape.Ifapersondies,heorsheisjustleavingtheearthtoanewplace,asthe"lunhui轮回",or"zhuanshi转世"meaningtobeginanewlife.Americansaregoodatprojectingthemselvesintothefuture.Thishasitshistoricalreasons.Americanhistoryisonlyabouttwohundredyears.Theyhavenogloriouspasttoadore.Peopledon'tknowtheirhistoryinmuchdetail.Overcomingthelimitationsofthepastorsurpassingtheaccomplishmentsofthepastaregoodreasonsofdoingsomethingnew.Forthis,historyintheirmindisnomorethanalimittosurpass.Inthehighlycompetitiveworld,timeismoney.Thereisseldomtimeforpeopletositdownandrecallthepast.Peoplejustsetgoalsforfuture,datesformeetingthem,andoutlinespecificstepsforgettingtothegoal.Theirattitudeisthatpeopleacttodaybecausethisactionisasteptowardthefuturetheyarepreparingfor.Forthem,thefutureisconcreteandknowablebutnotsomethingtodreamaboutorfear.Peopleworkjustforthislifeinthisworld.Timeislinear,whichmeansthatitmovesonlyforwardandinonedirectionfrombirthtodeath.Thereisnocircle,noreturningtobirthagain.Sotheyalsodon'thavesuchdeatheuphemismsasChinesehas.3.2DifferencesofReligionMostpeopleinEnglish-speakingnationsbelieveinChristianitywhichinturnhasadominantinfluenceonthelanguagepeoplespeak.WhileinChina,peoplemainlybelieveinBuddhismandTaoism.Thissectionwillanalyzethereligiondifferencesfromthefollowingaspects.3.2.1EnglishDeathEuphemismandChristianityMostpeopleinEnglishspeakingnationsembraceChristianityandthusChristiancreedsbecometheethnicalrulesabidedbythewesternsociety.ThismonisminreligiousexertsgreatinfluenceonEnglishdeatheuphemism.AhugeamountofEnglishdeatheuphemismsareofreligiousorigin.TheylargelycomefromtheBibleorotherlegendsandliteraryquotationsinvolvingtheBible,mostofwhichmanifestChristianphilosophy.ChristiansbelieveinGodasthecreatorofheavenandearth,theonewithoutwhotheworldandallthatisinitaremeaninglessandmakenosenseatall.HumanbeingsaresignificantbecauseGodcreatedtheminhisimage.Godmademenbyearth,thusafterdeath,menwilleventuallyreturntodust(earth);GodisthemasterofallcreaturesandmenareboundtobecalledtoGodandanswerthefinalsummons.TheyhandintheiraccountspendingthelastjudgmentmadebyGod.Eversincetheancestorofhumanbeings—AdamandEve,committedthe"originalsin"ofdisobedience,manisbornguilty.EveryonehastobelieveinGodandconfesshisorherguilt.Onlythroughthesepracticescanheorshebeatonedandnotbepunishedtosufferinthehellafterdeath.Thereafter,heisabletobeasleepintheArmsofGodandbeatpeace.Inthisway,mengotohisfinalreward.Upondoingthese,mancanlaunchintoeternityandhaveone'snameinscribedintheBookofLife.Sodeathisnotaterrifyingfact.ItisaperfectendtoallChristians.SincemostpeoplepracticeChristianity,itisnotsurprisingthatthosedeatheuphemismswithreligioushuehaveturnedintothecommoncoreofEnglishlanguageandarewidelyacceptedbypeopleinthesocietyevenincludingnon-Christians.#p#分页标题#e#3.2.2ChineseDeathEuphemismandBuddhismThesubjectofdeathandtheafterlifehasfascinatedhumanbeingssincetimeimmemorial.ForBuddhism,deathisadoorwaythroughwhichonepassesintoadifferentkindofexistencewhosenaturedependsonone'sattitudestowardsdeath.Buddhistsbelieveincyclicalbirthanddeathandrebirth.Accordingtothisview,deathmaybeconsideredasagatethroughwhichtheconsciousnessdepartsfromonelifeandbeginsthejourneytoanewlife.Rebirthmaytakeplaceinadifferentworld,suchasoneofthemanyheavens.Rebirthmaybeinoneofmanyforms.Onemayberebornasagodinheaven,orconversely,asananimalonearth,dependingupontheaccumulationofkarma(因缘)meritfromdeedsinpastlives.Comparativelyspeaking,bothChristianityandBuddhismhavethetendencyofpayingcloseattentiontowhathappensafterman'sdeath,andtakeman'sgoodorevilinthislifetodecidethefateofman'shereafter.InBuddhism,life'sessenceissuffering,andthefinalgoaloflifedirectsattheeternalhappinessafterman'sdeathwhichmeansbeingfreefromsamsara(轮回).Sothesignificanceofthislifeisonlytoprovidegroundfortheeternalhappinessafterman'sdeathbymeansofdoinggoodandremovingevilinthisworld.Upondeath,verygoodpersonsgotoBuddha'sPureland(西天极乐世界)atonceandverybadpersonsfallintohells(下地狱)immediately.Buddhasayslifeissuffering,causedbydesire.Toendthesuffering,wemustenddesire.Fromagreaterperspective,deathcausespainbecauseofourdesireforlife.Wefeardeathbecauseweholdontolife.Deathisallaroundus.Wewilldieandallthepeoplewelovewilldie.Lifeisimpermanentwithsufferinglurking,andthesufferingoftransmigratinginthecycleoflifeanddeathisbeyondcomprehension.Buddhaachievedliberationfromthisviciouscycleandthenpointedoutthepathtowardsuchliberationforallsentientbeings.WhentheBuddhistspracticeBuddhism,theyusuallysitwithtwolegscrossedandeyesclosed,andalsotheyputtheirhandsontheirlegs.Theyremaininsuchaposturetogetridofalltheevilorimpurethoughtsintheirmind.Thisiscalled"da-zuo,打坐".SomeoftheBuddhistschoosetoremaininthisposturewhentheypassawaywhichshowsthattheyarenotafraidofdeathandtreatitassomethingnaturalandpeaceful.Deathwiththispostureiscalled"zuohua坐化"or"zuotui坐蜕".ThisgraduallybecameadeatheuphemismthatmostBuddhistsadoptedandactuallypracticed.3.2.3ChineseDeathEuphemismandTaoismTaoismstartedasacombinationofpsychologyandphilosophybutevolvedintoareligiousfaithin440CDwhenitwasadoptedasastatereligion.AtthattimeLao-Libecamepopularlyveneratedasadeity.OnedominantconceptinTaoismisthebeliefinsomeformofreincarnation.TheideathatlifedoesnotendwhenonediesisanintegralpartofTaoism.ThegoalinTaoismistoachieve"Tao,道"，tofindtheway.Taoistheultimatereality,apresencethatexistedbeforetheuniversewasformedandwhichcontinuestoguidetheworldandeverythinginit.TaoissometimesidentifiedastheMother,orthesourceofallthings.Thatsourceisnotagodorasupremebeing,asTaoismisnotmonotheistic.Thefocusisnottoworshiponegod,butinsteadoncomingintoharmonywithTao.Desire,ambition,fame,andselfishnessareseenashindrancestoaharmoniouslife.ItisonlywhenapersonridshimselfofalldesirescanTaobeachieved.Byshunningeveryearthlydistraction,theTaoistisabletoconcentrateonlifeitself.Thelongertheperson'slife,themoresaintlythepersonispresumedtohavebecome.Eventuallythehopeistobecomeimmortal,toachieveTao,tohavereachedthedeeperlife.ThisistheafterlifeforaTaoist,tobeinharmonywiththeuniverse,tohaveachievedTao.TounderstandtheTaoismconceptoflifeanddeath,theoriginofthewordTaomustbeunderstood.TheChinesecharacter道isacombinationoftwocharactersthatrepresentthewordsheadandfoot.Thecharacterforfootrepresentstheideaofaperson'sdirectionorpath.Thecharacterforheadrepresentstheideaofconsciouschoice.Thecharacterforheadalsosuggestsabeginning,andfoot,anending.ThusthecharacterforTaoalsoconveysthecontinuingcourseoftheuniverse,thecircleofheavenandearth.Finally,thecharacterforTaorepresentstheTaoistideathattheeternalTaoisbothmovingandunmoving.Theheadinthecharactermeansthebeginning,thesourceofallthings,orTaoitself,whichnevermovesorchanges;thefootisthemovementonthepath.Taoismupholdsthebeliefinthesurvivalofthespiritafterdeath.Taoistbelievesbirthisnotabeginning,anddeathisnotanend.Thereisanexistencewithoutlimit.Thereiscontinuitywithoutastartingpoint.3.3DifferencesofSocialCustomsManwasborn,growsupandlivesintheboundlessuniversetillhisdeath.Deathisinevitabletoanyone.Funeralisakindofetiquetteformedthroughthousandsofyearsforthedeadtorestinpeaceandthelivingtobesatisfied.Thewholeprocessoffuneralistheconversationbetweenthedeceasedandtheliving;thereexistsastrongcomplex—-thecomplexofcherishingthememoryofancestorsanddearones.Thecomplexispresentedinbothphysicalandspiritualcontactsbetweenthelivingandthedead.Thatiswhatiscontainedinthedepthofthefuneralcustoms.#p#分页标题#e#3.3.1FuneralCustomsinEnglish-speakingNationsModernfuneralcustomsintheU.S.varyduetogeographicregion,ethnicbackground,religiousaffiliation,andeconomicandsocialclass.Dependingonwherehow,andwhendeathoccurs,itiscommontonotifyaphysicianorthepolice.Then,thecauseofdeathiscertifiedbyaphysician,coroner,ormedicalexaminer.Afterthefamilychoosesafuneraldirector,thedirectorremovesthebodytothefuneralhomewhereitisembalmed,orifitwillbecremated,itissanitized.Thefamilymustmakeotherdecisionssuchas:thetimeandlocationofthefuneralservice,whethertopublicizeit,whowillgivetheeulogyifoneistobesaid,andtheplaceofburialorcremation.Garmentsmustalsobechosenandshouldbesomethingthedeceasedenjoyedwearinginlife.Thefamilymustalsochooseacasket.AndthenFuneraldirectorsareimmediatelycalleduponsomeone'sdeath,andgenerallycometothehometodirectthefuneralandcarryouttheembalming.Abasketofflowersishungonthefrontdoor.Religiousservicesareheldatthehomeorinthechurch,andthenconcludewithaprocessiontothecemetery.ParticipatoryworshipistobeencouragedforChristianfunerals.Thefuneralliturgyservesasacomfortingandeducationaltoolforfamily,friends,andcongregation.Itfocusesnotonourselvesandourdesires,butonGod'sredemptiveloveanditsmeaningforusinlifeandindeath.ViewingthedeadbodyiswidespreadintheU.S.,occursinallsocialclasslevels,andisalmostalwaysdoneatthefuneralhome.Thislastlookatthedeadisamemorypicture.Blackclothingdoesnotnecessarilyneedtobeworn.However,guestsshouldwearsomethingmodestandwithaneatappearance.Thereisaguestbookjustinsidethedoorofeachfuneralchapel,andguestsareencouragedtosignit.Infrontofthecasketisakneeleruponwhichvisitorsmaystopandsayaprayerwhilelookingatthedeceased.Dependingonthereligionofthedeceased,theremaybeapedestalnearthecasketuponwhichareprayercards.Thesecardshaveareligiouspictureononeside,andaprayer,thenameofthedeceased,anddateofdeathonthereverse.Flowersarecommonlysentbyfriendsandrelativestothefuneralhomeandlatertransportedtothegravesite.Manyfamiliesnowpreferadonationbemadetoafavoritecharityinlieuofsendingflowers.InthediocesesoftheUnitedStates,theprincipalritualsintheOrderofChristianFuneralsaretheVigilfortheDeceased,theFuneralMass,andtheRiteofCommittal.MusicselectedfortheOrderofChristianFuneralsshouldbeappropriateforChristianprayerandconformtoliturgicaldirectives.ThetextsofthemusicshouldexpressthepaschalmysteryofChrist'spassion,death,andresurrection.ThisisespeciallyimportantfortheSongofFarewell.Popularnon-religioussongsarenottobeusedintheliturgy.Aeulogyisnotappropriatewhereahomilyisprescribed,althoughexamplesfromtheperson'slifemaybeusedinthehomily.Theliterarygenreofeulogyisnotahomileticform.Rather,thehomilyisto"illuminethemysteryofChristiandeathinthelightoftherisenChrist"asproclaimedinthereadings.Beforethecasketissealed,jewelryshouldberemovedfromthecorpsesoitcanbepasseddowntofuturegenerations.Itisatthistimethatfamilymembersmayplaceitemsinsidethecasketthattheywishthedeceasedtobeburiedwith.Theycanincludeafavoritebookofthedeceased,ahandwrittenpoem,orachild'sdrawing.Awakeusuallylastsfortwonights,withthefuneralbeingheldonthethirdday.Withfewexceptions,thereislittleactiveparticipationotherthanattendancebyfamilyandfriendsatthefuneral.ThisisauniquelyAmericancustom,whereasthefamilyfullyparticipatesinothercountries.Thecasketistransportedtothecemeterybythefuneraldirectorinahearse,andtheimmediatefamilyisoftentransportedinalimousinewithotherfamilymembersandfriendsfollowingbehindintheircarswiththeirheadlightson.Atthecemeterythereareafewreligiouscommittalrites,andthefamilyleaveswiththecasketstillaboveground.Afterthefuneral,thefamilyusuallyhasareceptionathomefortheguests.Moderncemeteriesareoperatedbythegovernment,bychurches,orbyprivatecorporations.Mostcemeteriesarelaidoutinrowsofburialplotsforearthinterment.Somepermittheerectionoflargefamilymonuments.However,theword"cemetery"causesafairamountofdisquiet.Whatevertheeuphemisticintentionbehindthewordmayoncehavebeen,thepredominantassociationsofittodayaremunicipal,impersonal,andbleak.Itisthusmorecomfortabletotalkofamemorialparkoragardenofremembrance.Butinso-calledmemorialparks,onlygravemarkersthatareflushwiththegroundmaybeinstalled.Thispracticeisbecomingmoreandmorecommon.Moderntombstonesareusuallymadeofgraniteandcarvedbymechanicalmeans.Theyrarelyincludemorethanthenameanddatesofthedeceased.3.3.2FuneralCustomsinChinaTheburialofthedead(cremationistraditionallyuncommon)isamattertakenveryseriouslyinChinesesocieties.ImproperfuneralarrangementscanwreakillfortuneanddisasteruponthefamilyofthedeceasedaccordingtotheChinesetradition.Ancestorworship—theemphasisonthecontinuityofkinshiplinksbetweenthelivingandthedead,thebeliefthatancestorscouldintercedewithdeitiesonbehalfoftheirlivingdescendants—isanessentialstimulusfortheevolutionoftheelaboratedeathritualpracticedbytheChinese.#p#分页标题#e#Toacertaindegree,Chinesefuneralritesandburialcustomsaredeterminedbytheageofthedeceased,themannerofhisorherdeath,hisorherstatusandpositioninsocietyandhisorhermaritalstatus.AccordingtoChinesecustom,anolderpersonshouldnotshowrespecttoayounger.Thus,ifthedeceasedisayoungbachelor,hisbodycannotbebroughthomebutisleftinafuneralparlor.Hisparentscannotofferprayersfortheirson:beingunmarried,hehasnochildrentoperformtheseriteseither,hencewhythebodydoesnotcometothefamilyhome.Ifababyorchilddies,nofuneralritesareperformed,asrespectcannotbeshowntoayoungerperson—thechildisburiedinsilence.Funeralritesforanelderlypersonmustfollowtheprescribedformandconveyrelevantrespect:ritesbefittingtheperson'sstatus,ageetc.mustbeperformed.Burialofthedeadrepresentsthelastmomentofthedead'sstayinthisworld.Soburialceremonyistypicallyregardedsolemnly.Whenthecoffinhasbeensealed,itisreadyforremovalfromthevillage,town,orneighborhoodofthedead.Thisexpulsionisthelastformalactinthesequenceofthefuneral.Sincethecoffinwouldbeburyundergroundandintheearth,thisprocessisalsocalled"rutu入土,guitu归土,zuantu钻土"inChinese.Thesewordsallbecomedeatheuphemismslater.Thetransferoffood,money,andgoodsfromthelivingtothedeadisonepartofthefuneral.Mockmoneyandpapermodelsofitemstobeusedintheafterlife(suchas,houses,furniture,servants,vehicles,etc.)aretransmittedbyburning.Foodispresentedintheformofofferings,wherebytheessenceofthegiftisconsumedbythedead.ItisprobablethatChinahasundergonetransformationinfuneraryritesoverthecenturies,andtheabovementionedisalsonotexhaustive.However,whatarestressedherearesomecommonpracticesinmostfuneralsthatarerelatedtothestudyofChinesedeatheuphemisms.4FactorsofDifferencesDeatheuphemismoriginatingfromtabooreflectsstrongculturalmotivation.Thefactorsfordifferencesofdeatheuphemismattributetotheseculturalmotivation.Thissectionwillfocusontheanalysisoftheculturalmotivationfromthefollowingaspects.4.1TraditionalMoralityMoralityisanimportantpartofculture,whichreferstothestandards,orprinciplesofgoodbehaviorofacertainsociety.Theseprinciplessurelywillinfluencepeople'sgoodbehavior,somethingincludinglinguisticbehavior.Thatistosay,accordingtoacertainmorality,canbesaiddirectly,whiletheothersmaynotbementionedatall.Therefore,euphemisms,theroundaboutwaysofspeaking,wouldenablepeopletokeepthemoralityandcommunicatesuccessfully.TakeChineseruschool(儒家)asanexample.EversincetheHandynasty,theChineseemperor"汉武帝"adoptedthepolicy"honorruschoolandabolishotherschoolsofthought,罢黜百家，独尊儒术",peoplehadenjoyedrareideologicalfreedom.Ruschoolstressedrespectability,ritualandpaidgreatattentiontomoralityandprestige.Thisaffectedtheirlinguisticbehavior.Naturally,peoplegovernedbythedoctrineofruschooltriedtotalkinroundaboutwaysaboutthingsthatareagainstthemoralcodeifmentioneddirectly.Ruschoolhasdifferentchoiceofwordsfordifferentsocialranks.Peopleshouldneveruse"beng崩"torefertothedeathofthecommon,otherwise,boththespeakerandthepersonreferredtowouldbesuspectedofbearingmaliciousintentionandwouldbepunishedseverelyforthat.Peopleshouldbehaveaccordingtotheirsocialstatuswhichisrequiredbythemoralityofthenation.That'swhytherearesomanydeatheuphemismsfordifferentpeopleofdifferentpositions.4.2SocialConventionConventionisthegenerallyacceptedpractice,especiallywithregardtosocialbehavior.Itisthecustomorcertainbehaviorthatisformedafterlongtimepracticeandisacceptedbymostofthepeople.Peoplebehaveaccordingtothesocialconventionandlongtimepracticemakessocialconventionpenetrateintopeople'smind,whichmightevenbeshownthroughtheircharacteristics.Differentgroupsplaybydifferentrules,andconventionsvaryconsiderablybetweenindividualsevenwithinthesamecommunity.Differentcultureshavedifferentrepertoiresofface-savingstrategies.Thereareculturaldifferencestotheuseofdeatheuphemisms,butessentially,thesameparameterrecursineveryculturetomotivedeatheuphemism.Beingpoliteisacodeorprinciplepeoplefollowincommunication.Asetiquette,itisfoundonthebasisofmostnations'culturalpsychologies.MutualrespectandfaceeffectrequirepolitemodeofexpressionincommunicationinbothChineseandEnglish-speakingnations.Thisprovidesgoodenvironmentforthegrowthofeuphemism.Therearetimeswhenmoreorlesseveryonewouldagreethatpeopleshouldnotmentiontheworddeathdirectly.Acouplewhosechildhasjustbeenkilledinanaccident,ayoungmanlearningforthefirsttimethathehasonlyafewweekstolive，itwouldbepeculiarlybrutaltotalkaboutdeathdirectlyinsteadofdoingone'sbesttosoftentheblow.Asetofeuphemism,atsuchmoments,woulddefeatitsownpurpose.Whatareneededatthatverytimearewordsthatwouldmakethedreadfulfinalityofthefactblur,ifonlyforaninstant.Sopeoplefallbackonthemosteffectiveformsofeuphemistictalk.4.3PsychologicalFactorPsychologically,theoriginofdeatheuphemismsisastimulus-responseprocess.Afterawordhaslongbeenassociatedwiththestimulusthatprovokesit,theworditselfpicksupaspectsoftheresponseelicitedbythestimulusobject(Neaman&Silver,1983:9).Forinstance,theterm"die"or"decease"denotethesamefact,butwhyistheformertabooed,thelatteracceptableforuse?Generally,taboowordscallupexplicit,undesirableassociation,whereaseuphemismsevokeindirect,mild,pleasantassociations.Taboowordsarenotintrinsicallynasty.Theunfavorableemotionsandattitudesattachedtothemareoftenshapedduringthelongperiodofculturaldevelopment.#p#分页标题#e#Throughouthistory,deathhasbeendescribedintermsofeverynewbelief,technologyandpastime.Americansareevenlinguisticallyproudoftheirvasttermsaboutdeath.Themostaudaciousofthedeath-denyingstrategiesistopretendthatdeathislife.JohnAyto(1993:233)jokedthatifyoucanconvinceyourselfthatthedeadpersonhasnotreallydied，youareamplyconsoled.Thatiswhytherearedeatheuphemismsas"fallasleep沉睡"，and"gotoheaven去天堂".Theaffectivemeaningsofthesewordscoverthebrutalfactandleavepeopleonlyapeacefulatmosphere.5ConclusionLanguageisaconstantlychangingsemioticsystem,withlanguagevariationastheprerequisiteoflanguagechange.Thispaperaimstoanalyzedeatheuphemism,akindoflanguagevariation.Fromthisanalysis,itisfoundthatChineseandEnglishdeatheuphemismsaregreatlydifferentfromculturalaspect.Firstly,fromChineseandEnglishdeatheuphemisms,itcanbeseenthatmanisbasicallygoodandlivesinharmonywithnatureinChinesewhileinEnglish,mancontrolsnature;ChinesepeopleclingstronglytotheirpastwhilemostpeopleinEnglish-speakingnationsbelieveonlyinfuture.Secondly,therearealsoreligiondifferences.TheutmostreligiousinfluenceonEnglishdeatheuphemismisChristianitywhileonChinese,BuddhismandDaoism.Thirdly,thesocialcustomsrelatedtodeathandfuneralsinthesetwoculturesarealsodifferentduetotheirdifferentcultures.Deatheuphemismhasbeenheavilyappliedthaneverbefore,andithasgreatvitality.Extraordinarycollectionsofdeatheuphemismshaveformedaroundthetabooworddeathovertheyearsasaconsequenceofthecontinualcreationofnewtermsanditseemssafertosaythatthesizesofthesecollectionsreflectthestrengthoftheunderlyingtaboo.InbothChineseandwesternsocieties,peopleusethoserefined,veileddeatheuphemismsalmosteveryday.Itcanhelppeoplesetupfavorablerelationswithothersincommunicationandkeeptheverbalexchangegoingonwithoutahitch.Acontrastivestudyinthisfieldmaywellenhancepeople'sawarenessandunderstandingofotherculturesaswellastheirown,therebyfacilitatingcross-culturalcommunication.Theanalysisinthisthesisisnotexhaustivesincedeatheuphemismsgrowastimegoesby,besidesthat,withtheprocessofglobalization,cross-culturalcommunicationbecomesamustinpeople'dailylives,somoreandmoreattentionaredrawntotheanalysisofculturaldifferencesofdeatheuphemisms.References:[1]Allan,K.&K.Burridge.1991.Euphemism&Dysphemism[M].Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.[2]Ayto,J.1993.Euphemisms[M].London:BloomsburyPublishingLtd.[3]Enright,D.J.(ed).1985.FairofSpeech[M].Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.[4]Fromkin,V.l988.AnIntroductiontoLanguage[M].Chicago:HoltRinehartandWinston,Inc.[5]Goodenough,W.H.1957.CulturalAnthropologyandLinguistics[M].WashingtonDD:GeorgetownUniversityPress.[6]Hartwell,P.1982.ANewCollegeRhetoric[M].Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.[7]Leech,G.1985.Semantics[M].Haedmondsworth:PenguinBooks,Ltd.[8]Rawson,H.1981.ADictionaryofEuphemismandotherDoubletalk[M].NewYork:CrownPublishers,Inc.[9]Sangren,S.1987.HistoryandPowerinaChineseCommunity[M].Standford:StandfordUniversityPress.[10]Neaman,J.S.&C.G.Silver.1983.AThesaurusofEuphemisms[M].NewYork:FactsOnFile,Inc.[11]李思国.2001.英汉死亡代用语跨文化对比分析[J].《外语与外语教学》(1).[12]郭红梅.2005.英汉委婉语与中西文化发展[J].《太原大学学报》(4).[13]关世杰.1995.《跨文化交流学》[M].北京：北京大学出版社.[14]顾嘉祖，郑立信.1993.《美国英语与美国文化》[M].长沙:湖南教育出版社.[15]洪成玉.2002.《谦词，敬词，婉词词典》[Z].北京:商务印书馆.[16]潘世兹.1988.《三字经》[M].北京:商务印书馆.[17]刘纯豹.1990.ADictionaryofEuphemism[M].南京:江苏教育出版社.[18]魏慧哲.2004.中英死亡委婉语跨文化对比[D].石家庄：河北师范大学.[19]吴慧坚.1994.死亡委婉语与民族文化个性[J].青岛:青岛海洋出版社(6).[20]张拱贵.1996.《汉语委婉语词典》[Z].北京:北京语言文化大学出版社.
